SEKTOR PSIKOLOGI DAN KAUNSELING JPN JOHOR: Dasar & Notis

SEKTOR PSIKOLOGI DAN KAUNSELING JPN JOHOR: Dasar & Notis:

'via Blog this'

Rational Emotif Therapy

Sumber: AllPsyconline

As Simple as A-B-C

Even though Albert Ellis was more of a therapist than a theorist, his interpretation of cognitive theory has gained a great deal of notability over the past twenty plus years.  On the surface, his model is quite simple and often described as the A-B-C process.

According to Ellis, we experience Activating Events (A) everyday that prompt us to look at, interpret, or otherwise think about what is occurring.  Our interpretation of these events result in specific Beliefs (B) about the event, the world and our role in the event.  Once we develop this belief, we experience Emotional Consequences (E) based solely on our belief.

Lets look again at the scenario presented in the last chapter.  We originally used the approach to demonstrate a typical humanistic exchange.  Lets go back to the beginning and see how Ellis or other cognitive therapists might have done things differently.  If you recall the solution in the previous chapter, you will notice that the means may be completely different, but the end is remarkably similar.

Therapist:	I'm very curious about what's going on with you.  What do you see as your reason for your coming in to talk with me today?
Client:	Well, I see myself as a loser.  I can't seem to accomplish anything and my husband says he wants a divorce because I just sit around all day doing nothing.  I just don't see any way out of this whole mess.
Therapist:	What makes you see yourself as a loser?
Client:	I can't get anything done, my husband hates me, I'm lazy.  I'm just a loser.
Therapist:	So you've accomplished nothing at all in, say, the last month.
Client:	Nothing.
Therapist:	Wow, that's really hard to believe.  Why don't you rethink that answer and look at some of the things you have accomplished.
Client:	Like what?
Therapist:	Start with the basics.  Today you showered, you ate breakfast, you got the kids ready for school.
Client:	So?
Therapist:	So that's a little more than nothing isn't it?
Client:	I guess.  But I still feel like...
Therapist:	Hold on a second.  Why are you negating the fact that you accomplished something today.
Client:	Because it's not enough for my husband.
Therapist:	This is about you though.  Do you think you accomplished something today?
Client:	Yes.
Therapist:	How does it feel to know you are at least taking care of your basic needs and seeing that your children are getting their needs met.
Client:	I guess it feels good.
Therapist:	You guess?
Client:	No, it does, it could be a lot worse, I really could be doing nothing.
Therapist:	But you're doing something?
Client:	Yes, I'm not a total loser.  Maybe I need to talk with my husband about this.  He thinks I sit around all day and watch soaps.  But I clean, cook his dinner, take care of the kids.
Therapist:	So perhaps the two of you need to find some middle ground
Client:	Exactly, I know I'm not perfect and maybe I could do more, but he needs to see what I do do rather than just what I don't.  I think we are going to have a heart to heart talk tonight.

KURSUS HIPNOSIS

Kursus Asas, CH,CHt,CHi

Pertubuhan/Klinik Hipnoterapi di Seluruh Dunia

MENTAL RETARDATION

Source: The New York Times

Mental retardation is a condition diagnosed before age 18 that includes below-average general intellectual function, and a lack of the skills necessary for daily living.

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REFERENCE FROM A.D.A.M.

Back to TopAlternative Names

Intellectual and developmental disability

Back to TopCauses

Mental retardation affects about 1 - 3% of the population. There are many causes of mental retardation, but doctors find a specific reason in only 25% of cases.

A family may suspect mental retardation if the child's motor skills, language skills, and self-help skills do not seem to be developing, or are developing at a far slower rate than the child's peers. Failure to adapt (adjust to new situations) normally and grow intellectually may become apparent early in a child's life. In the case of mild retardation, these failures may not become recognizable until school age or later.

The degree of impairment from mental retardation varies widely, from profoundly impaired to mild or borderline retardation. Less emphasis is now placed on the degree of retardation and more on the amount of intervention and care needed for daily life.

Risk factors are related to the causes. Causes of mental retardation can be roughly broken down into several categories:

• Infections (present at birth or occurring after birth)
  • Congenital CMV
  • Congenital rubella
  • Congenital toxoplasmosis
  • Encephalitis
  • HIV infection
  • Listeriosis
  • Meningitis
• Chromosomal abnormalities
  • Chromosome deletions (such as cri du chat syndrome)
  • Chromosomal translocations (a gene is located in an unusual spot on a chromosome, or located on a different chromosome than usual)
  • Defects in the chromosome or chromosomal inheritance (such as fragile X syndrome, Angelman syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome)
  • Errors of chromosome numbers (such as Down syndrome)
• Environmental
  • Deprivation syndrome
• Genetic abnormalities and inherited metabolic disorders
  • Adrenoleukodystrophy
  • Galactosemia
  • Hunter syndrome
  • Hurler syndrome
  • Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
  • Phenylketonuria
  • Rett syndrome
  • Sanfilippo syndrome
  • Tay-Sachs disease
  • Tuberous sclerosis
• Metabolic
  • Congenital hypothyroid
  • Hypoglycemia (poorly regulated diabetes)
  • Reye syndrome
  • Hyperbilirubinemia (very high bilirubin levels in babies)
• Nutritional
  • Malnutrition
• Toxic
  • Intrauterine exposure to alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, and other drugs
  • Lead poisoning
  • Methylmercury poisoning
• Trauma (before and after birth)
  • Intracranial hemorrhage before or after birth
  • Lack of oxygen to the brain before, during, or after birth
  • Severe head injury
• Unexplained (this largest category is for unexplained occurrences of mental retardation)

Back to TopSymptoms

• Continued infant-like behavior
• Decreased learning ability
• Failure to meet the markers of intellectual development
• Inability to meet educational demands at school
• Lack of curiosity

Note: Changes to normal behaviors depend on the severity of the condition. Mild retardation may be associated with a lack of curiosity and quiet behavior. Severe mental retardation is associated with infant-like behavior throughout life.

Back to TopExams and Tests

An assessment of age-appropriate adaptive behaviors can be made using developmental screening tests. The failure to achieve developmental milestones suggests mental retardation.

The following may be signs of mental retardation:

• Abnormal Denver developmental screening test
• Adaptive behavior score below average
• Development way below that of peers
• Intelligence quotient (IQ) score below 70 on a standardized IQ test

Back to TopTreatment

The primary goal of treatment is to develop the person's potential to the fullest. Special education and training may begin as early as infancy. This includes social skills to help the person function as normally as possible.

It is important for a specialist to evaluate the person for other affective disorders and treat those disorders. Behavioral approaches are important for people with mental retardation.

Back to TopOutlook (Prognosis)

The outcome depends on:

• Opportunities
• Other conditions
• Personal motivation
• Treatment

Many people lead productive lives and function on their own; others need a structured environment to be most successful.

Back to TopPossible Complications

Complications vary. They may include:

• Inability to care for self
• Inability to interact with others appropriately
• Social isolation

Back to TopWhen to Contact a Medical Professional

Call your health care provider if:

• You have any concerns about your child's development
• You notice that your child's motor or language skills are not developing normally
• Your child has other disorders that need treatment

Back to TopPrevention

Genetic: Prenatal screening for genetic defects and genetic counseling for families at risk for known inherited disorders can decrease the risk of inherited mental retardation.

Social: Government nutrition programs are available to poor children in the first and most critical years of life. These programs can reduce retardation associated with malnutrition. Early intervention in situations involving abuse and poverty will also help.

Toxic: Environmental programs to reduce exposure to lead, mercury, and other toxins will reduce toxin-associated retardation. However, the benefits may take years to become apparent. Increased public awareness of the risks of alcohol and drugs during pregnancy can help reduce the incidence of retardation.

Infectious: The prevention of congenital rubella syndrome is probably one of the best examples of a successful program to prevent one form of mental retardation. Constant vigilance, such as limiting exposure to cat litter that can cause toxoplasmosis during pregnancy, helps reduce retardation that results from this infection.

Back to TopReferences

Shapiro BK, Batshaw ML. Mental retardation (intellectual disability). In: Kliegman RM, Behrman RE, Jenson HB, Stanton BF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics . 18th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2007:chap 38.

PSIKOSIS

Apa penyebab psikosis?

Sumber: News Medical

Penyebab gejala penyakit mental yang lazim diklasifikasikan sebagai "organik" atau "fungsional". Kondisi organik terutama medis atau patofisiologi, sedangkan, kondisi fungsional terutama psikiatris atau psikologis.
DSM-IV-TR tidak lagi mengklasifikasikan gangguan psikotik sebagai fungsional atau organik. Melainkan daftar penyakit psikotik tradisional, psikosis karena kondisi Kedokteran Umum, dan psikosis yang diinduksi Zat.

Psikiatrik

Penyebab psikosis fungsional meliputi:

• tumor otak
• obat amfetamin penyalahgunaan, kokain, alkohol antara lain
• kerusakan otak
• skizofrenia, gangguan schizophreniform, gangguan schizoafektif, gangguan psikotik singkat
• gangguan bipolar (manik depresi)
• parah klinis depresi
• parah stres psikososial
• kurang tidur
• beberapa gangguan epilepsi fokal terutama jika lobus temporal dipengaruhi
• paparan beberapa peristiwa traumatik (kematian kekerasan, dll)
• tiba-tiba atau over-cepat menarik diri dari obat rekreasi atau diresepkan tertentu

Sebuah episode psikotik dapat secara signifikan dipengaruhi oleh suasana hati. Sebagai contoh, orang yang mengalami episode psikotik dalam konteks depresi mungkin mengalami delusi persecutory atau diri menyalahkan atau halusinasi, sementara orang-orang mengalami episode psikotik dalam konteks mania dapat membentuk delusi megah.
Stres diketahui untuk berkontribusi dan memicu negara psikotik. Riwayat psikologis peristiwa traumatik, dan pengalaman baru-baru ini peristiwa stres, dapat baik berkontribusi pada pengembangan psikosis.
Psikosis singkat dipicu oleh stres yang dikenal sebagai psikosis reaktif singkat, dan pasien dapat pulih secara spontan berfungsi normal dalam waktu dua minggu.
Dalam beberapa kasus yang jarang terjadi, individu dapat tetap dalam keadaan full-blown psikosis selama bertahun-tahun, atau mungkin memiliki gejala psikotik dilemahkan (seperti halusinasi intensitas rendah) hadir paling banyak kali.
Kurang tidur telah dikaitkan dengan psikosis. Namun, ini bukan resiko bagi kebanyakan orang, yang hanya mengalami halusinasi hypnagogic atau hypnopompic, yaitu pengalaman indrawi yang tidak biasa atau pikiran yang muncul saat bangun tidur atau tertidur. Ini adalah fenomena tidur normal dan tidak dianggap tanda-tanda psikosis.
Kekurangan vitamin B12 juga dapat menyebabkan gejala mania dan psikosis.
Kekurangan vitamin D dapat menyebabkan berpikir diubah dan psikosis.
Genetika juga mungkin memiliki peran dalam psikosis. Para kembar empat Genain adalah identik kembar empat yang semuanya didiagnosis dengan skizofrenia.

Umum medis

Psikosis yang timbul dari "organik" (non-psikologis) kondisi kadang-kadang dikenal sebagai psikosis sekunder. Hal ini dapat dikaitkan dengan patologi berikut:

• gangguan neurologis, termasuk:
  • tumor otak
  • demensia dengan badan Lewy
  • multiple sclerosis
  • sarkoidosis
  • Penyakit Lyme
  • sipilis
  • Penyakit Alzheimer
  • Penyakit Parkinson
  • Anti-reseptor NMDA ensefalitis

• elektrolit gangguan seperti:
  • hipokalsemia
  • hipernatremia
  • hiponatremia
  • hipokalemia
  • hypomagnesemia
  • hypermagnesemia
  • hypercalcemia
  • hypophosphatemia
  • hipoglikemia
  • lupus
  • AIDS
  • kusta
  • malaria
  • Onset dewasa menghilang leukoencephalopathy materi putih
  • Akhir-onset metachromatic leukodystrophy
  • Cerebral keterlibatan skleroderma (laporan kasus tunggal).
  • Hashimoto ensefalopati, suatu kondisi yang sangat jarang terjadi (sekitar 100 kasus yang dilaporkan).

Psikosis bahkan dapat disebabkan oleh penyakit tampaknya tidak berbahaya seperti flu atau gondok.

Penggunaan narkoba psikoaktif

Berbagai zat psikoaktif (baik legal dan ilegal) telah terlibat dalam menyebabkan, memperburuk, dan / atau mempercepat negara psikotik dan / atau gangguan pada pengguna.
Beberapa obat-obatan seperti fenilpropanolamin bromocriptine dan juga dapat menyebabkan atau memperburuk gejala-gejala psikotik.

Bacaan lebih lanjut

• Psikosis - Apakah Psikosis?
• Gejala psikosis
• Psikosis Patofisiologi
• Pengobatan psikosis
• Psikosis Intervensi Dini
• Psikosis Sejarah

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